The Age of Wonder surveys are administered annually at participating schools in Bradford. Pupils in year 8, 9, and 10 are asked to complete the self-report survey once per year. The surveys are composed of a selection of psychometric scales and bespoke questions designed to measure mental health outcomes and potential risk/protective factors. Many of the psychometric scales were modified or adapted in some way. Most of the questionnaire is completed by all three year groups (8, 9, 10), but some sections are only completed by one or two of the year groups. The survey was revised for each year of data collection, and some scales were administered in the first year of data collection that were later removed from the survey for subsequent years.
Mental health outcomes
The Age of Wonder (AoW) surveys were all self-reported.
Please click on the buttons below for more information about each measure.
Depression and Anxiety
Participants in school years 8 and 10 complete the
Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale-25 (RCADS-25). This is a validated 25-item measure of depression and anxiety in children and adolescents. RCADS-25 consists of a 10-item depression subscale, and a 15-item anxiety subscale that assesses five anxiety disorders (generalised anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder).
| Construct | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anxiety | RCADS-25 | 15 | 0-3 | 0-45 | Greater severity | 8, 10 |
| Depression | RCADS-25 | 10 | 0-3 | 0-30 | Greater severity | 8, 10 |
| Anxiety and depression | RCADS-25 | 25 | 0-3 | 0-75 | Greater severity | 8, 10 |
Emotional and Behavioural Problems (and Prosocial Behaviour)
Participants in school year 9 completed the
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). This is a validated 25-item multidomain behavioural screening tool designed for use with children and adolescents. Twenty of the items describe potentially problematic behaviour across four hypothesised, 5-item subscales (emotional, peer, behavioural, and conduct problems), and the remaining five items describe pro-social behaviour (intended to measure strengths, rather than difficulties). Respondents rate each of the 25 items on a 0-3 Likert scale to indicate the extent to which they behave in the manner described by the item. Higher scores on the problem behaviour scales indicate more problems, and higher scores on the pro-social subscale indicate more pro-social behaviour. Two broader, 10-item problem subscales can be formed by combining the emotional and peer subscales into an internalising problems subscale, and combining the behavioural and conduct problems subscales into an externalising problems subscale.
Goodman et al. (2010) recommended the use of the broader, 10-item scales in community samples, and
Štochl et al. (2016) found that this factor structure was the best fit for data collected from the BiB cohort at earlier time points (ages 3, 4 and 5).
| Construct | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Conduct problems | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 |
| Hyperactivity/ impulsivity | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 |
| Emotional problems | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 |
| Peer problems | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 |
| Externalising problems | SDQ | 10 (conduct + hyperactivity subscales) | 0-2 | 0-20 | More problems | 9 |
| Internalising problems | SDQ | 10 (conduct + hyperactivity subscales) | 0-2 | 0-20 | More problems | 9 |
| Total difficulties | SDQ | 20 (conduct + hyperactivity subscales) | 0-2 | 0-40 | More problems | 9 |
| Prosocial behaviour | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More prosocial behaviour | 9 |
Wellbeing
Participants in years 8, 9, and 10 completed the
Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (SWEMWBS). This is a validated 7-item measure of psychological wellbeing, adapted from the
Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale. Scores range from 7-25 with higher scores indicating greater wellbeing.
| Scale | Construct(s) | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SWEMWBS | Wellbeing | 7 | 1-5 | 0-45 | Greater wellbeing | 8, 9, 10 |
Eating Disorders
Participants in years 8, 9, and 10 completed the
Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire - Short version (EDE-QS). This is a validated 12-item measure of cognitive and behavioral symptoms of eating disorders, adapted from the 28-item
Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q). Respondents rate each item on a 0-3 likert scale to indicate the frequency or extent to which they have experienced the corresponding symptom over the past 7 days. Scores range from 0-36 with higher scores indicating a greater number and/or severity of eating disorder symptoms.
| Scale | Construct(s) | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EDEQ-S | Eating Disorder | 12 | 1-5 | 0-36 | Greater severity | 8, 9, 10 |
Loneliness
Participants in years 8, 9, and 10 completed four items from the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3), a 20-item measure of loneliness. These four items can be used to form either the UCLA-4, or (excluding one of the four) the UCLA-3. In both instances, higher scores indicate more frequent feelings of loneliness. The UCLA-3 was developed by Hughes et al. (2004) for use in telephone surveys of older adults, and has since been used in numerous studies of adolescents (e.g., Houghton et al., 2014; Mueller et al., 2021; Rogers et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2024). Respondents rate each item on a Likert scale from 1-3 (shortened from the 1-4 Likert scale in the original UCLA Loneliness Scale), indicating how often they experience the feeling described by each item.
Matthews et al. (2016) expanded the UCLA-3 to the UCLA-4 by adding a fourth item from the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): ‘‘How often do you feel alone?’’ (also with a shortened 1-3 Likert scale). The UCLA-4 is almost identical to the Office for National Statistics (ONS; 2018) recommendation for measuring loneliness in adults, with two differences:
- The ONS recommends a single-item “direct measure of loneliness” as the fourth item (i.e., “How often do you feel lonely?”);
- The Likert scale for the single-item direct measure of loneliness ranges from 1-5 instead of 1-3.
Additionally, in the AoW survey the wording of the first item was changed from “How often do you feel that you lack
companionship?’’ to “How often do you feel that you lack
friendship?’’.
| Scale | Construct(s) | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modified wording |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UCLA-3 | Loneliness | 3 | 1-3 | 3-9 | Greater loneliness | 8, 9, 10 | Yes |
| UCLA-4 | Loneliness | 4 | 1-3 | 3-12 | Greater loneliness | 8, 9, 10 | Yes |
Resilience
Participants completed the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) in school years 8, 9, and 10. The BRS is a validated 6-item measure designed to assess an individual’s ability to “bounce back” or recover from stress. Scores range from 6 - 30 with higher scores indicating greater resilience.
| Scale | Construct(s) | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BRS | Resilience | 6 | 1-5 | 6-30 | Greater resilience | 8 |
Psychosis
In year 10, participants completed 24 items designed to capture psychosis-like experiences, referred to as the Psychosis-Like Symptoms-8 (PLIKS-8) in the
Age of Wonder protocol. This is not a validated self-report measure, but was based on the semi-structured interview administered in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) birth cohort and described by
Horwood et al. (2008). Eight items ask about specific psychosis-like experiences including hallucinations (auditory and visual) and delusions (spied on, persecution, thoughts being read, reference, control, grandiose ability), with responses on a 1-3 Likert scale (1 = Yes, definitely; 2 = Yes, maybe; 3 = No, never). Each of these eight items has one or more follow-up questions such as “how upsetting did you find this?” (on a 1-4 Likert scale from 1 = Not at all upsetting, to 4 = Very upsetting) and “How often [did you experience this] in the past year?” (with five response options: 1 = Once or twice; 2 = Less than once a month; 3 = More than once a month; 4 = Nearly every day; 5 = Not at all).
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psychosis-like experiences | PLIKS-8 | 24 | 1-5 | N/A | N/A | 10 | Questions adapted from a structured clinical interview. |
Selected exposures
The Age of Wonder (AoW) surveys were all self-reported.
Please click on the buttons below for more information about each measure.
Help-seeking
The General Help-Seeking Questionnaire (GHSQ) is a 10-item measure of help-seeking. Each item describes a potential source of help (e.g., “Parent”, “Mental health professional”, “Phone helpline”) and participants respond on a 1-7 Likert scale to indicate how likely they would be to seek help from that source (higher scores indicate greater likelihood). The GHSQ is formed of two subscales, measuring help seeking in response to personal/emotional problems, and help seeking in response to suicidal thoughts, respectively. The AoW survey includes only the first of these two subscales.
One point was added to the Likert scale for the first item (1.a), to indicate “I don’t have a girlfriend, boyfriend or partner”. The last item (1.j, “I would seek help from another not listed above”) was changed from 1-7 Likert scale to a binary (yes/no) response. One item was added (between items 1.h and 1.i) to measure the likelihood that participants would seek help with personal/emotional problems from a teacher. The order of GHSQ items was otherwise preserved, and the wording was modified for some items (e.g., “Intimate partner (e.g., girlfriend, boyfriend, husband, wife, de’ facto)” changed to “Girlfriend/boyfriend or partner”; “Phone helpline (e.g. Lifeline)” changed to “Phone helpline (e.g. lifeline/samaritans/NSPCC)”).
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Help seeking | GHSQ - Personal/ emotional problems subscale | 10 | 1-7 | N/A | More help-seeking | 8, 9, 10 | Likert scale response to item 1a changed to 1-8. Likert scale response to item 1j changed to binary (yes/no) response. Wording of some items changed. An additional, non-GHSQ item asks about seeking support from a teacher. |
Perceived Social Support
Participants in the first year of data collection (2022/2023) completed the
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), a 12-item measure of perceived social support across three, four-item subscales: family, friends, and significant other. A small number of bespoke questions in the AoW 2023/2024 survey ask about social support: “There is an adult at school I can talk to if something is worrying me”, “How many in-person friends do you have?”, “How many online friends do you have?”, “Do you have any close friends?”.
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Social support | MSPSS | 12 | 1-7 | 12-84 | More support | 8, 9, 10 | Removed after 2022/2023 data collection. |
Sedentary Behaviour
Participants in school years 8, 9, and 10 completed the Youth Activity Profile - Sedentary Behaviour subscale (Saint-Maurice & Welk, 2014,
2015). The Youth Activity Profile is a validated
web-based self-report measure of physical activity and sedentary behavior in children and adolescents. Participants rate 5 items on a 1-5 Likert scale to indicate the amount of time spent on sedentary activities. Higher scores indicate more time spent on sedentary activities.
| Scale | Construct(s) | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Social support | MSPSS | 5 | 1-5 | 5-25 | More time spent on sedentary activity | 8, 9, 10 |
Physical Activity
The
Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents
(PAQ-A) is a 10-item self-report scale designed to measure adolescents’ physical activity over the previous 7 days. Items 2-6 measure physical activity at different times during the week (during PE, at lunch, after school, in the evening, on the weekend) on a 1-5 Likert scale, with higher scores indicating more physical activity. Item 10 asks whether the respondent was sick, or whether anything else prevented them from taking part in physical activity in the last week (with a binary yes/no response). These 6 items were included in the AoW survey, and 3 bespoke items were added. Two of the bespoke items ask about active travel to and from school, similar to items on the Youth Activity Profile - Activity subscale (YAP-A;
Saint-Maurice & Welk, 2014,
2015). The third additional item asks about physical activity at break time, again similar to an item on the YAP-A, and similar to the item that distinguishes the PAQ-A from the
Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children.
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Physical activity | PAQ-A | 10 | 1-5 | N/A | More physical activity | 8, 9, 10 | Four items removed (1, 7, 8, 9), three items added. |
Discrimination
Participants in school years 8, 9, and 10 completed the
Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index, a 15-item measure of racial and ethnic discrimination that was validated in adolescents in the USA. In the Age of Wonder survey, this scale was adapted to measure various forms of discrimination (ethnicity, sex/gender, disability, religion, class, neurodiversity, sexuality). Four items were removed (1, 2, 3, and 6), item responses were changed from a 0-5 Likert scale to a binary (yes/no) response, and the wording of some items was adapted (e.g., “hassled by a store clerk” was changed to “hassled by staff in a shop”).
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Discrimination distress | ADDI | 11 | 1-5 | N/A | Greater discrimination distress | 8, 9, 10 | 4 of 15 items removed (1, 2, 3, 6). Likert scale (0-5) responses to all items changed to binary (yes/no) response. Adapted to measure various forms of discrimination in addition to racial discrimination. |
Family Affluence
Participants in school years 8, 9, and 10 completed the Family Affluence Scale (FAS). This is a four-item measure of family affluence that was developed for the World Health Organisation’s
Health Behaviour in School-aged Children 2001/02, and validated in a large sample of adolescents from 35 countries by
Boyce et al. (2006). The four items ask about the respondent’s family possessions, living space, and frequency of family holidays. In the FAS, responses to two items are on a 0-3 Likert scale, one item is a 0-2 Likert scale, and one is a binary (yes/no) response. In the AoW 2024/24 survey, the three Likert scale item responses were changed to binary (yes/no) responses. The wording of the questions was altered, and an additional item was added which asks whether the participant has their own mobile phone.
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Family wealth | FAS | 4 | 0-1 | N/A | Greater affluence | 8, 9, 10 | Likert scale responses to items 1, 3, and 4 changed to binary (yes/no) responses. Item 3 was already a binary response. |
Attitudes Towards Technology
Participants in the first year of data collection (2023/2024) completed the
Pupils Attitudes Towards Technology scale
(PATT), a measure of attitudes towards technology. A range of bespoke questions in the AoW 2023/2024 survey ask about digital and social media, including social media platforms used, time spent using them, and positive and negative experiences of using social media.
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attitudes towards technology | PAT | 24 | Varies by subscale | 8, 9, 10 | Removed after 2022/2023 data collection. |
Social Striving Against Perceived Inferiority
Participants in the first year of data collection (2023/2024) completed the
Striving Against Inferiority Scale (SAIS), a measure of social striving to avoid perceived inferiority. A number of bespoke questions in the AoW 2023/2024 survey cover some similar themes, such as: “How often do you think that people compare you to others to see if you match up?”, “Would you say your family is richer compared to your friends?”, and seven questions relating to academic pressure from school/family.
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale | Range | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Social striving | SAIS | 42 | Greater striving | 8, 9, 10 | Removed after 2022/2023 data collection. |
Psychometric scales in Age of Wonder
| Construct(s) | Scale | N items | Likert scale in AoW | Range in AoW | Higher score indicates | Year group(s) | Modifications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Discrimination distress | ADDI | 11 | 0-1 | N/A | Greater discrimination distress | 8, 9, 10 | 4 of 15 items removed (1, 2, 3, 6). Likert scale (0-5) responses to all items changed to binary (yes/no) response. Adapted to measure various forms of discrimination in addition to racial discrimination. Wording of some items changed. |
| Resilience | BRS | 6 | 1-5 | 6-30 | Greater resilience | 8 | |
| Eating Disorder | EDEQ-S | 12 | 1-4 | 12-48 | Greater severity | 8, 9, 10 | |
| Family wealth | FAS | 4 | 0-1 | 0-4 | Greater affluence | 8, 9, 10 | Likert scale responses to items 1, 3, and 4 changed to binary (yes/no) responses. Item 3 was already a binary response. |
| Help seeking | GSHQ | 10 | 1-8/1-7/0-1 | N/A | More help-seeking | 8, 9, 10 | Likert scale (1-7) response to one item (1j) changed to binary (yes/no) response. An additional, non-GHSQ item asks about seeking support from a teacher. |
| Social support | MSPSS | 12 | 1-7 | 12-84 | More support | 8, 9, 10 | Removed after 2022/2023 data collection. |
| Physical activity | PAQ-A | 6 | 1-5 | More physical activity | 8, 9, 10 | Four of ten items removed (1, 7, 8, 9), three items added. | |
| Attitudes towards technology | PATT | 24 | Varies by subscale | 8, 9, 10 | Removed after 2022/2023 data collection. | ||
| Psychosis-like experiences | PLIKS-8 | 24 | 1-3/1-4/1-5 | N/A | N/A | 10 | Not a validated self-report scale, questions adapted from a structured clinical interview. Items ask about 8 different psychosis-like experiences. |
| Anxiety | RCADS | 15 | 1-4 | 15-60 | Greater severity | 8, 10 | Likert scale changed from 0-3 to 1-4. |
| Depression | RCADS | 10 | 1-4 | 10-40 | Greater severity | 8, 10 | Likert scale changed from 0-3 to 1-4. |
| Total | RCADS | 25 (anxiety + depression subscales) | 1-4 | 25-100 | Greater severity | 8, 10 | Likert scale changed from 0-3 to 1-4. |
| Social striving | SAIS | 42 | 0-4 | 0-168 | Greater striving | 8, 9, 10 | Removed after 2022/2023 data collection. |
| Conduct problems | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 | |
| Hyperactivity/ impulsivity | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 | |
| Emotional problems | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 | |
| Peer problems | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More problems | 9 | |
| Externalising problems | SDQ | 10 (conduct + hyperactivity subscales) | 0-2 | 0-20 | More problems | 9 | |
| Internalising problems | SDQ | 10 (emotional + peer subscales) | 0-2 | 0-20 | More problems | 9 | |
| Total difficulties | SDQ | 20 (externalising + internalising subscales) | 0-2 | 0-40 | More problems | 9 | |
| Prosocial behaviour | SDQ | 5 | 0-2 | 0-10 | More prosocial behaviour | 9 | |
| Wellbeing | SWEMWBS | 7 | 7-35 | 7-35 | Greater wellbeing | 8, 9, 10 | |
| Loneliness | UCLA-3 | 3 | 3-9 | 3-9 | Greater loneliness | 8, 9, 10 | Modified wording: “companionship” changed to “friendship”. |
| Loneliness | UCLA-4 | 4 | 3-12 | 3-12 | Greater loneliness | 8, 9, 10 | Modified wording: “companionship” changed to “friendship”. |
| Sedentary activity | YAP-S | 5 | 5-25 | 5-25 | More time spent on sedentary activity | 8, 9, 10 |
Note. ADDI = Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index; BRS = Brief Resilience Scale; EDEQ-S = Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire - Short; FAS = Family Affluence Scale; GHSQ = General Help Seeking Questionnaire (personal or emotional problems subscale only); MSPSS = Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support; PAQ-A = Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents; PATT = Pupils Attitudes Towards Technology; PLIKS-8 = Psychosis-Like Symptoms Questionnaire; RCADS = Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale; SAIS = Striving Against Inferiority Scale; SDQ = Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; SWEMWBS = Short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale; UCLA-3 = University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale - 3 item version; UCLA-4 = University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale - 4 item version; YAP-S = Youth Activity Profile - Sedentary subscale.
A selection of the bespoke measures in Age of Wonder
| Exposure | Year group(s) | Variable description |
|---|---|---|
| Religion | 8, 9, 10 | A question regarding the participant’s religious beliefs with a categorical response. |
| Sleep | 8, 9, 10 | Questions regarding sleep and wake times on school and non-school nights, as well as quality of sleep and feeling of tiredness throughout the day. |
| Identity and discrimination | 8, 9, 10 | This section assesses participants' perceived experiences of discrimination across various settings and identifies the aspects of their identity they believe were the basis for these incidents. Reasons for discrimination include ethnicity, sex/gender, disability, religion, class, neurodiversity, sexuality and an ‘other’ category. Questions were based on the Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (see Table 1). |
| School experience | 8, 9, 10 | Questions regarding enjoyment of school, problems with bullying, as well as feelings of safety, trust and pressure. |
| Activities | 8, 9, 10 | Questions regarding the types of activities people have participated in over the past month. Responses are on a 3-point Likert-type scale. Questions cover participation in/attendance at events focussing on music, writing, volunteering, art, visual, reading, poetry, performance, parties, museums, political, religious, gaming, spectating, theatre, clubbing, scouts, and library. |
| Special educational needs | 8, 9, 10 | One question regarding SEN provision. 3-point Likert-like response. |
| Smoking / vaping | 8, 9, 10 | Initial questions regarding whether a person smokes or vapes and follow-up questions regarding their frequency of smoking or vaping behaviour. |
| Alcohol | 8, 9, 10 | Initial question regarding whether the person has ever tried alcohol, then follow-up questions regarding age at first alcoholic drink, drinking frequency, and binge drinking. |
| Drugs | 8, 9, 10 | A general question regarding whether the person has ever taken drugs, followed-up with more specific questions on the type of drugs taken and the frequencies of drug taking. |
| Gambling | 8, 9, 10 | Questions regarding the types and frequency of gambling practices. |
| Social Media | 8, 9, 10 | Questions regarding social media use, frequency of use, and positive and negative experiences of use. |
| Natural environment | 8, 9, 10 | Questions regarding access to green space in winter and summer months, opinions on air quality, and feelings regarding the future of the environment. |
| In-game purchases | 8, 9, 10 | Questions regarding money spent on in-game purposes. |
